Issued  December  13,  1910. 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


FARMERS’  BULLETIN  414. 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


BY 

C.  F\  HARTLEY, 

Physiologist  in  Charge  of  Corn  Investigations , 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1910. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 

Office  of  the  Chief, 

Washington ,  D.  C.,  April  28 ,  1910. 

Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  paper  entitled  “Corn  Cultivation,” 
and  respectfully  recommend  that  it  be  published  as  a  Farmers’  Bulletin. 

This  paper  was  prepared  by  Mr.  C.  P.  Hartley,  Physiologist  in  Charge  of  Corn 
Investigations.  It  originally  appeared  in  the  Yearbook  for  1903  and  has  been 
revised  and  brought  up  to  date  with  a  view  to  publication  as  a  Farmers’  Bulletin, 
superseding  No.  199,  entitled  “Corn  Growing.” 

Respectfully,  B.  T.  Galloway, 

Chief  of  Bureau. 

Hon.  James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


C  0  N  T  E  N  T  S 


Possibility  of  doubling  present  yield . . . 

Improvement  in  quality  of  seed  planted . . 

Improvement  in  condition  of  soil . 

Some  land  too  poor  for  profitable  corn  growing 

Soil  washing  and  its  prevention . . 

Absorption  of  rainfall . 

Retention  of  soil  moisture . 

Fertilizers  and  crop  rotation . 

Improvements  in  methods  of  cultivation . 

General  discussion  of  methods . 

Fall  plowing . 

Depth  of  plowing . 

Planting . 

Importance  of  thorough  early  cultivation . 

Depth  and  frequency  of  cultivation . 

Kinds  of  cultivators . 


Page. 

3 

4 
(i 
G 
8 

10 
11 
12 
15 
*  15 
17 
19 
19 
25 
25 
28 


IL LUSTRATIONS. 


Page. 

Fig.  1.  Soil  too  poor  for  profitable  corn  growing . 6 

2.  Average  production  reduced  by  infertile  spots . 7 

3.  Average  production  reduced  by  undrained  spots .  8 

4.  Average  production  reduced  by  close  proximity  to  timber .  9 

5.  A  Pennsylvania  field  that  produced  130  bushels  of  corn  per  acre .  14 

6.  Implements  used  in  producing  130  bushels  of  corn  per  acre .  15 

7.  Cotton  and  corn  growing  on  a  well-terraced  farm  in  Alabama .  17 

8.  Soil  washing  prevented  by  terraces .  IS 

9.  Wide  planting,  with  peanuts  between  the  corn  rows .  18 

10.  Planting  system  for  low,  wet  land .  20 

11.  lister  with  drill  attached .  22 

12.  A  two-row  planter  with  disk  attachments  for  furrow  planting .  22 

13.  Narrow  shovels  and  fenders  for  early  cultivation .  25 

14.  Root  distribution  at  silking  time .  2G 

15.  Injurious  results  from  cultivation  after  the  ground  had  become  too  dry .  26 

16.  Implement  for  maintaining  a  soil  mulch  in  tall  corn . '  27 

17.  A  one-horse  cultivator  well  adapted  to  the  shallow  cultivation  of  tall  corn .  27 

18.  A  two-row  cultivator . 28 

19.  A  three-row  cultivator  for  listed  corn .  29 

20.  Sweeps  and  shovels  used  on  single  and  double  cultivators .  29 

21.  A  horse  hoe  or  hoeing  machine . 30 

22.  Double  cultivator  equipped  for  surface  cultivation .  30 

23.  Surface  cultivator  and  disk  cultivator .  30 

24.  Homemade  shovels  adapted  to  surface  cultivation  and  weed  destruction .  31 

25.  A  good  modern  double  cultivator .  31 


414 

2 


B.  P.  I.— 581. 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


POSSIBILITY  OF  DOUBLING  PRESENT  YIELD. 

It  is  possible  within  a  few  years  to  double  the  average  production 
of  corn  per  acre  in  the  United  States,  and  to  accomplish  it  without 
any  increase  in  work  or  expense.  It  is  not  to  be  understood  from  this 
statement  that  it  is  desirable  to  double  the  present  corn  crop,  but  that 
it  is  desirable  to  produce  the  same  yield  on  a  smaller  number  of  acres 
and  with  less  labor.  If  60  bushels  a  are  raised  on  1  acre  instead  of  on 
2  acres,  the  labor  of  plowing,  harrowing,  planting,  cultivating,  and 
harvesting  is  greatly  reduced.  The  demand  controls  the  quantity 
that  should  be  grown.  To  meet  demands  the  producers  of  the  United 
States  have,  during  the  ten  years  previous  to  1910,  averaged  in  round 
numbers  2,500,000,000  bushels  of  corn  yearly.  In  producing  this 
quantity  a  little  more  than  95,000,000  acres  have  yearly  been  devoted 
to  *  corn  growing.  The  average  production  per  acre  has  been  26 
bushels.  Very  few  farmers  would  like  to  acknowledge  that  their 
average  production  for  the  past  ten  years  has  been  as  low  as  26  bushels 
per  acre,  but  from  the  best  estimates  that  have  been  made  the  con¬ 
clusion  is  unavoidable  that  half  of  those  who  grow  corn  harvest  less 
than  26  bushels  per  acre.  Twice  this  quantity  is  a  fair  crop,  three 
times  26  bushels  is  a  good  crop,  and  four  times  26  bushels  per  acre 
are  frequently  produced. 

Since  the  average  crop  in  the  States  best  adapted  to  corn  growing  is 
but  little  above  the  general  average  of  the  entire  country,  it  is  evident 
that  the  average  is  not  lowered  to  any  great  extent  by  the  poor  crops 
in  sections  unsuited  to  corn  growing.  Moreover,  the  yield  per  acre 
in  the  New  England  States,  with  their  poor  soil  and  short  growing 
season,  is  as  great  as  in  any  other  part  of  the  country.  This  clearly 
indicates  the  possibility  of  greatly  increasing  the  yield  per  acre  in  the 
corn  belt.  This  is  especially  easy  of  accomplishment  in  the  Southern 

a  The  laws  of  the  majority  of  States  recognize  70  pounds  of  ears  or’56  pounds  of  shelled 
corn  as  a  bushel  of  corn.  These  weights  are  reliable  when  the  ears  or  shelled  corn  con¬ 
tain  only  15  per  cent  of  water.  About  one-third  the  weight  of  ear  corn  as  customarily 
harvested  in  the  Northern  States  is  water,  while  that  harvested  in  the  drier  sections 
of  the  South  contains  less  than  15  per  cent  of  water. 

414 


3 


4 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


States,  where  the  present  production  per  acre  is  low  and  where  the 
growing  season  is  not  shortened  by  frosts. 

Poor  corn  crops  are  usually  attributed  to  unfavorable  weather  con¬ 
ditions,  and  frequently  this  is  the  true  cause,  for  there  are  but  few 
summers  during  which  this  crop  does  not  suffer  more  or  less  at  some 
stage  in  its  growth.  The  most  that  can  be  done  regarding  the  weather 
is  to  take  the  best  possible  advantage  of  the  conditions  as  they  exist. 
But  there  are  other  conditions  that  are  responsible  for  low  produc¬ 
tion — conditions  that  are  directly  under  the  control  of  the  farmer — 
and  it  is  these  that  make  possible  the  doubling  of  the  average  yield 
per  acre  within  a  few  years.  Although  entirely  possible,  it  is  not 
expected  that  the  near  future  will  witness  an  average  production  of  52 
bushels  for  every  acre  grown.  The  failure  to  realize  this  production 
will  result  from  the  failure  of  many  growers  to  improve  their  methods. 
That  some  growers  in  many  different  States  are  year  by  year  produc¬ 
ing  50  and  75  bushels  of  corn  per  acre  proves  the  possibility. 

The  lines  of  improvement  that  will  most  easily  and  quickly  double 
the  present  production  per  acre  are  as  follows:  (1)  Improvement  in 
the  quality  of  seed  planted;  (2)  improvement  in  the  condition  of  the 
soil;  (3)  improvement  in  methods  of  cultivation. 

IMPROVEMENT  IN  QUALITY  OF  SEED  PLANTED. 

Quality  improved  by  seed  selection. — As  the  first  of  these  three  ways 
of  increasing  production — by  improving  the  quality  of  the  seed 
planted — is  discussed  in  the  Department  publications  entitled  “The 
Improvement  of  Corn  by  Seed  Selection/7®  and  “The  Production  of 
Good  Seed  Corn/’  6  it  will  not  be  given  the  space  in  this  bulletin  that 
its  importance  demands.  It  is  a  sure  and  inexpensive  way  of  increas¬ 
ing  production,  and  is  the  means  that  usually  receives  least  attention 
by  corn  growers  in  general.  Many  farmers  who  give  considerable 
attention  to  improving  the  fertility  of  their  farms  and  bettering  their 
methods  of  cultivation  take  their  seed  corn  from  the  supply  that 
happens  to  remain  in  the  crib  at  planting  time  without  considering 
that  their  production  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  quality  of  seed 
they  plant. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  tested  the  comparative  productive¬ 
ness  of  ears  selected  from  good  yielding  stalks  in  comparison  with 
good  ears  of  the  same  variety  taken  from  a  crib.  The  field-selected 
ears  produced  16  bushels  more  per  acre,  or  20  per  cent  more  than  the 
crib-selected  ears. 

a  Yearbook  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1902.  A  reprint  of  this  paper 
may  be  obtained  free  of  charge  upon  application  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

b  Farmers’  Bulletin  229,  a  copy  of  which  may  be  secured  without  cost  upon  applica¬ 
tion  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

414 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


5 


Seed  ears  selected  from  the  high-yielding  rows  of  an  ear-to-row 
breeding  plat  produced  18  bushels  more  per  acre,  or  16  per  cent  more 
than  equally  fine-looking  seed  ears  selected  from  a  general  field  of  the 
same  corn.  The  ears  of  both  lots  were  preserved  in  the  same  manner. 

Quality  retained  by  proper  seed  preservation. — The  breeding  and 
selecting  of  high-yielding  seed  are  of  great  importance.  The  proper 
preservation  of  seed  corn  is  of  equal  importance. 

Four  bushels  of  corn  were  harvested  and  divided  into  two  equal 
parts.  One  part  was  well  dried  and  kept  dry  during  the  winter  in  a 
seed  house  and  the  other  kept  in  an  ordinary  corncrib.  In  the 
spring  the  well-preserved  seed  was  put  in  one  box  of  a  two-row  corn 
planter  and  the  cribbed  seed  in  the  other  planter  box.  On  rich  bot¬ 
tom  land  planted  in  this  manner  the  well-preserved  seed  produced  18 
bushels  more  per  acre,  or  27  per  cent  more  than  the  cribbed  seed; 
while  on  poor  upland  the  well-preserved  seed  produced  7  bushels 
more  per  acre,  or  12  per  cent  more  than  the  cribbed  seed.  The 
cribbed  seed  germinated  as  well  as  the  well-preserved  seed,  but  the 
resulting  plants  were  less  thrifty  and  less  productive. 

Varietal  names  of  little  importance. — It  would  seem  strange  to  pub¬ 
lish  a  general  article  on  corn  culture  without  including  something 
about  varieties,  but  the  nomenclature  of  corn  varieties  is  in  such  chaos 
because  of  mixing  of  names  by  seed-corn  dealers  and  the  mixing  of 
varieties  by  cross-pollination  effected  by  the  wind,  that  a  varietal 
name  is  of  little  significance  in  comparison  with  the  vigor,  produc¬ 
tiveness,  and  purity  of  the  seed.  The  Learning  is  as  constant  and  well 
recognized  a  variety  as  exists,  yet  seed  ears  purchased  under  this 
name  in  Connecticut  or  New  York  are,  in  appearance  and  productive 
ability,  usually  as  unlike  ears  of  Learning  purchased  in  Ohio  or  Illinois 
as  they  are  unlike  ears  of  other  varieties. 

In  purchasing  seed  corn  it  is  wise  to  give  much  more  attention  to 
the  productiveness  of  a  variety,  its  uniformity,  and  its  adaptability  to 
the  soil  and  climate  where  it  is  to  be  grown  than  to  the  varietal  name. 
A  variety  or  strain  can  be  rendered  exceedingly  productive  by  proper 
breeding,  but  if  neglected  it  soon  deteriorates.  Careful  breeders  of 
productive  strains  of  corn  are  needed  in  every  community,  and  grow¬ 
ers  who  do  not  care  to  grow  a  special  seed  patch  and  select  their  seed 
with  care  should  buy  the  best  seed  obtainable.  If  of  the  best  quality 
it  will  be  worth  $25  per  bushel  more  for  seed  purposes  than  unselected 
corn.  A  bushel  of  seed  corn  will  plant  6  acres.  Seed  of  the  best 
quality  will  increase  the  yield  10  bushels  per  acre,  thereby  increasing 
the  harvest  60  bushels  for  each  bushel  of  seed  planted. 


6 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


IMPROVEMENT  IN  CONDITION  OF  SOIL. 

The  opportunity  for  the  improvement  of  the  soil  offers  a  wide  and 
inviting  field  of  effort  to  the  intelligent  and  progressive  farmer. 
While  the  methods  to  be  adopted  vary  with  the  character  and  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  soil,  the  climatic  condition,  and  the  use  that  is  to  be  made 
of  the  land,  the  general  principles  involved  are  here  presented  in  the 
hope  that  they  may  prove  helpful  to  farmers  in  all  sections  where  corn 
is  grown. 

SOME  LAND  TOO  POOR  FOR  PROFITABLE  CORN  GROWING. 

While  it  is  true  that  proper  attention  to  seed  selection  and  methods 
of  cultivation  will  greatly  increase  the  average  production  per  acre 


Fig.  1. — Soil  too  poor  for  profitable  corn  growing.  Such  fields  should  not  again  be  planted  in  corn  until 

their  fertility  is  great  ly  increased. 


for  all  land  now  devoted  to  corn  growing,  it  is  equally  true  that  the 
cultivation  of  corn  will  never  be  found  profitable  .on  very  poor  land. 
Some  growers,  from  force  of  habit,  perhaps,  every  spring  plant  corn 
on  land  which  they  know  is  too  poor  to  produce  a  profitable  crop 
(fig.  1).  While  this  practice  continues,  the  soil  as  well  as  the  farmer 
will  remain  poor.  The  plowing  and  cultivating  of  poor  soil  is  as 
expensive  as  the  plowing  and  cultivating  of  fertile  soil.  The  man  who 
cultivates  poor  soil  and  harvests  poor  crops  can  not  profitably  com¬ 
pete  with  his  neighbor  who  grows  good  crops  with  but  little,  if  any, 
greater  expenditure  of  labor  or  capital.  Corn  growing  should  not  be 
attempted  on  poor  land  until  it  is  brought  into  a  fertile  condition  by 
the  growing  and  plowing  under  of  leguminous  crops,  the  application 

414 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


1 


of  manures,  etc.  In  the  meantime  some  crops  that  require  less  fer¬ 
tility  than  corn  may  be  grown.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the 
nature  of  the  corn  plant  is  such  that  it  will  not  produce  grain  unless 
the  soil  is  rich  enough  to  afford  a  considerable  growth  of  stalk,  and 
that,  in  general,  the  richer  the  soil  the  heavier  will  be  the  yield  of 
grain.  For  this  reason  some  other  plants  will  produce  fair  crops 
on  soil  too  poor  to  produce  corn.  A  cotton  plant  adjusts  its 
yield  of  lint  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  a  small  plant  producing  a 
small  number  of  bolls  containing  lint  of  as  good  a  quality  as  that 
from  a  larger  plant  bearing  many  more  bolls.  A  hay  crop  is  also  in 
quite  regular  proportion  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  This  is  not 
true,  however,  of  corn.  When  poor  soil  dwarfs  grass  to  half  its  nor¬ 
mal  size,  the  crop  of  hay  is  reduced  by  about  one-half,  but  when  poor 
soil  dwarfs  the  corn  plants  to  half  their  normal  size  it  is  probable  that 
there  will  be  no  grain  yield,  or  if  any  ears  are  produced  they  will  be 
small  and  inferior. 


Fig.  2.— Average  production  reduced  by  infertile  spots. 


Even  in  the  best  corn-producing  States  there  is  some  land  so  poorly 
cared  for  that  farmers  who  persist  in  attempts  to  grow  corn  on  it 
receive  but  little  for  their  labor.  Such  land,  however,  in  a  few  years’ 
time  can  be  made  to  produce  good  corn  crops.  The  growers  who  are 
quickest  to  learn  the  futility  of  attempting  to  grow  corn  on  impov¬ 
erished  land  are  those  whose  farms  contain  some  poor  upland  fields 

find  it  necessary  to  fertilize 
and  renovate  the  poor  fields  or  confine  corn  growing  to  the  bottoms. 
In  most  regions  creek  bottoms  and  river  valleys  are  particularly 
adapted  to  corn  growing,  as  they  usually  have  a  fertile  soil  and  a 
subsoil  well  supplied  with  moisture. 

Another  explanation  of  the  low  yield  per  acre  on  many  farms  is  the 
amount  of  unsuited  or  unimproved  areas  frequently  embraced  within 
the  boundaries  of  fields  planted  to  corn.  In  many  cornfields  tlirough- 

414 


and  some  fertile  bottom  land.  They 


8 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


out  the  country  may  be  seen  portions  or  spots  on  which  it  is  impossible 
for  corn  to  thrive.  These  may  be  clayey  spots  (fig.  2),  or  swampy 
or  undrained  areas  (fig.  3),  or  ground  adjacent  to  timber  (fig.  4).  It 
is  too  great  a  waste  of  labor  to  plow,  harrow,  and  cultivate  such  unpro¬ 
ductive  spots.  They  should  be  improved  so  that  they  will  yield  a 
profit,  or  they  should  not  be  planted  at  all.  The  poor  clay  spots 
should  be  enriched,  the  swampy  places  drained  or  filled,  and  the  corn 
should  be  planted  farther  from  the  timber,  with  a  strip  of  timber 
grass  next  to  the  trees.  Many  farms  could  be  made  more  profitable 
by  rearranging  the  fields  in  order  to  make  them  more  uniform  as 
regards  moisture  and  soil  fertility,  so  that  the  entire  field  may  be 
treated  as  the  character  of  the  soil  may  demand.  No  field  can  be 
well  tended  if  the  corn  rows  extend  through  a  portion  too  wet  for 
cultivation  when  another  portion  is  in  best  condition  for  cultivation. 


Fig.  3. — Average  production  reduced  by  undrained  spots. 

SOIL  WASHING  AND  ITS  PREVENTION. 


Evil  effects  of  soil  washing. — More  land  has  been  rendered  unfit  for 
corn  growing  by  the  washing  away  of  the  surface  soil  than  by  con¬ 
stant  cropping.  Soil  washing  must  be  guarded  against  if  profitable 
crops  are  to  be  harvested  from  the  same  field  for  a  number  of  years, 
and  with  proper  attention  in  this  respect  the  farm  may  be  made  better 
year  by  year.  The  effect  of  heavy  rains  is  to  wash  out  gullies  and 
ditches  and  to  carry  away  the  soil  and  plant  food  as  muddy  water.  If 
this  is  allowed  to  continue  unchecked  the  lightest  and  most  fertile  por¬ 
tion  of  the  soil  is  carried  away  and  the  land  becomes  less  productive 
from  year  to  year.  One  heavy  rain  will  sometimes  carry  away  from  a 
field  more  soil  than  a  man  with  a  team  and  wagon  could  restore  in  a 
week.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  farmers  in  the  newer  and  more  fertile 
sections  of  the  country  are  not  as  wide  awake  to  the  destructive  effects 

414 


COEN  CULTIVATION. 


9 


of  soil  washing  as  they  are  in  older  sections,  where  the  farms  have  already 
been  injured  by  the  rains  of  past  centuries,  and  where  constant  atten¬ 
tion  is  now  necessary  to  retain  the  fertility  which  is  at  considerable 
expense  put  into  the  soil. 

Cover  crops  and  terraces.— It  should  not  be  supposed  that  because 
land  is  rolling  or  hilly,  washing  must  take  place.  Some  very  hilly  sec¬ 
tions  which  have  deep  porous  soils,  full  of  humus,  wash  but  little,  and 
that  only  when  the  ground  is  frozen  to  a  considerable  depth  and  thaws 
on  the  surface.  Hard  soils  that  do  not  readily  take  up  the  water  that 
falls  upon  them  wash  much  more  than  loose  porous  soils.  The  most 
effective  means  of  preventing  washing  is  to  cover  the  soil  with  vegeta¬ 
tion  and  loosen  the  subsoil  so  that  the  rainfall  can  penetrate  and  be 
absorbed  instead  of  running  off.  The  rows  of  corn,  moreover,  should 


Fig.  4.— Average  production  reduced  by  close  proximity  to  timber. 


run  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  slope.  Terraces,  when 
properly  placed  and  well  constructed,  are  effective  barriers  to  soil 
washing,  and  their  use  is  to  be  encouraged.  These  methods  could  be 
profitably  employed  on  the  sloping  lands  near  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi 
rivers.  It  is  the  desire  of  most  farmers  to  have  straight  corn  rows, 
and  on  level  lands  this  is  preferable,  but  on  hills  better  success  will 
be  obtained  by  running  the  rows  at  the  same  level  around  the  hills. 
This  will  necessitate  curved  rows,  but  the  curves  will  usually  not  be 
abrupt  enough  to  make  cultivation  difficult;  in  fact,  cultivation  is  thus 
rendered  much  easier,  since  it  is  not  necessary  to  plow  up  and  down 
the  hill,  which,  to  prevent  soil  washing,  should  always  be  avoided. 

61052°— Bull.  414—10 - 2 


10 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


ABSORPTION  OF  RAINFALL. 

Proper  condition  of  soil. — The  carrying  away  of  soluble  plant  food 
and  lighter  portions  of  soil  is  not  the  only  objectionable  feature  of  soil 
washing.  The  water  itself  is  likely  to  be  needed  during  some  portion 
of  the  summer.  By  loosening  the  subsoil  and  covering  the  surface 
with  a  growth  of  vegetation,  the  soil  can  be  made  so  absorbent  that 
the  water  will  penetrate  the  ground  and  be  held  in  reserve  to  sustain 
the  growing  plants  during  times  of  drought.  It  would  seem  that  after 
a  period  of  heavy  rainfall,  during  which  8  or  1 0  inches  of  water  fell 
within  a  month,  the  soil  and  subsoil  of  all  fields  would  be  alike 
saturated,  but  such  is  not  the  case.  The  condition  of  the  surface  soil 
has  much  to  do  in  determining  how  much  of  the  rainfall  will  be 
absorbed.  The  condition  of  the  subsoil  is  also  important.  If  its 
moisture  has  been  exhausted  by  lack  of  cultivation  and  injudicious 
cropping,  it  will  absorb  water  more  slowly  than  when  it  is  already 
moist.  Thus  it  is  that  the  subsoil  of  some  fields  remains  dry  to  a 
depth  of  several  feet  during  a  season  of  heavy  rains,  while  that  of 
other  fields  absorbs  water  in  sufficient  abundance  to  sustain  crops  dur¬ 
ing  periods  of  drought.  To  readily  absorb  the  water  that  falls  during 
times  of  heavy  rains  the  surface  soil  must  be  loose  and  porous,  so  as  to 
take  up  the  water  rapidly  before  it  has  time  to  accumulate,  and  hold 
it  thus  until  by  capillary  attraction  it  is  drawn  to  the  subsoil. 

Improvement  of  subsoils. — Some  very  fine  clay  subsoils  are  so  com¬ 
pact  that  they  turn  water  almost  as  effectually  as  a  slate  roof.  Such 
subsoils  should  be  rendered  permeable,  and  the  most  effective  and 
cheapest  way  to  accomplish  this  is  by  growing  deep-rooted  plants, 
such  as  clovers,  alfalfa,  melilotus,  etc.  The  roots  of  these  plants  pen¬ 
etrate  the  subsoil  and,  decaying,  leave  numerous  ducts  through  which 
water  from  the  surface  soil  will  pass  to  greater  depths.  That  this  is 
exactly  what  occurs  is  proved  by  comparisons  of  plats  of  ground  on 
which  such  plants  have  been  grown  with  adjacent  plats  on  which  they 
have  not  been  grown.  The  former  plats  are  tillable  soon  after  heavy 
rains,  because  the  water  has  found  its  way  into  the  subsoil,  while  the 
latter  plats  remain  muddy  on  the  surface. 

Some  subsoils  are  the  reverse  of  those  just  referred  to;  instead  of 
being  too  compact  they  are  too  open.  A  subsoil  of  coarse  gravel  may 
allow  the  water  to  pass  through  too  readily,  thus  washing  out  and 
draining  away  the  fertility.  Such  subsoils  are  not  compact  enough 
to  supply  the  surface  soil  with  moisture  by  capillary  attraction.  Soils 
of  this  nature  are  greatly  benefited  by  the  plowing  under  of  vegetable 
matter,  which,  besides  adding  greatly  to  the  soil  fertility,  checks  the 
rapid  leaching  through  the  subsoil  and  enables  it  to  retain  moisture 
better  during  dry  weather.  The  application  of  vegetable  matter 
improves  the  fertility  and  physical  condition  of  almost  all  soils, 
regardless  of  whether  the  subsoil  is  compact  or  porous. 

414 


COEN  CULTIVATION. 


11 


RETENTION  OF  SOIL  MOISTURE. 

Amount  of  moisture  needed  by  crop. — The  amount  of  moisture  needed 
to  produce  a  crop  is  much  greater  than  would  be  imagined.  In  the 
case  of  corn  it  is  sufficient  to  cover  the  field  with  water  to  a  depth  of 
from  10  to  15  inches. a  About  three-fifths  of  this  quantity,  or  from  6 
to  9  inches  of  water,  is  absorbed  by  the  roots  and  exhaled  by  the 
foliage  of  the  growing  crop.6  More  corn  crops  are  cut  short  by  an 
insufficient  quantity  of  available  soil  moisture  than  by  any  other  cause. 
This  is  well  demonstrated  by  the  fact  that  fields  situated  by  rivers  or 
lakes  in  such  a  manner  that  the  subsoil  always  contains  sufficient 
moisture  seldom  fail  to  produce  good  corn  crops.  The  greater  portion 
of  the  corn-growing  area,  however,  is  dependent  directly  upon  the 
rainfall  for  its  water  supply,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the 
absorption  and  retention  of  water  are  so  important. 

Lessening  evaporation.- — After  the  soil  and  subsoil  have  become  well 
supplied  with  moisture  by  the  rains  of  fall,  winter,  and  spring,  the 
next  important  consideration  is  the  means  by  which  it  can  be  retained 
in  the  soil  constantly  within  reach  of  the  growing  crop.  The  effect 
of  sunshine  and  wind  is  to  cause  the  moisture  to  pass  rapidly  from 
the  soil  directly  into  the  atmosphere,  and  unless  cultural  methods  are 
employed  to  lessen  evaporation  much  of  the  soil  moisture  will  pass 
into  the  air  without  benefiting  the  crop  except  in  a  very  slight  and 
indirect  way.  For  the  good  of  the  crop  as  much  of  the  soil  moisture 
as  possible  should  pass  into  the  atmosphere  through  the  plants.  In 
this  way  it  will  carry  the  soluble  plant  food  into  the  plants,  whereas 
if  allowed  to  evaporate  from  the  surface  of  the  soil  it  will  leave  the 
soluble  plant  food  deposited  on  or  near  the  surface,  where  it  will  be 
inaccessible  to  the  roots  until  it  is  cultivated  deeper  into  the  soil  or 
washed  there  by  succeeding  rains. 

Value  of  a  loose  soil  mulch. — As  the  moisture  from  the  surface  evap¬ 
orates  it  is  replaced  by  moisture  drawn  from  greater  depths  by  cap¬ 
illary  attraction,  just  as  oil  is  drawn  through  the  wick  of  a  lamp  to 
replace  that  which  is  consumed  by  the  flame.  The  rapidity  with 
which  moisture  will  evaporate  from  the  ground  depends  upon  the 
condition  of  the  capillary  tubes  or  pores  that  connect  the  surface 
with  the  deeper  soil.  Any  dry  blanket  that  can  be  placed  between 
the  atmosphere  and  the  damp  soil  will  check  this  evaporation. 
The  most  practical  protection  is  a  covering  of  finely  pulverized  dry 
soil  2  or  3  inches  deep.  By  thoroughly  loosening  the  surface  layer 
the  soil  particles  are  disarranged  so  that  the  capillary  tubes  are  not 

a  Ninth  Annual  Report,  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  1892,  p.  99. 

b  Experimental  Investigations  into  the  Amount  of  Water  Given  off  by  Plants. 
Rothamsted  Memoirs,  by  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  vol.  1. 

414 


12 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


continuous.  In  this  condition  the  surface  soil  oecomes  quite  dry 
and  remains  so  without  absorbing  moisture  from  below,  thus  acting 
as  a  mulch  and  retaining  the  moisture  within  reach  of  the  plant 
roots.  It  is  necessary  that  this  soil  mulch  be  fine,  for  il  it  is  com¬ 
posed  of  clods  air  circulates  between  them  and  causes  evaporation 
to  take  place  from  the  soil  below  the  surface.  A  rain,  however,  will 
wet  the  surface,  causing  the  soil  to  run  together  and  crust,  thus 
restoring  capillarity.  This  makes  another  cultivation  necessary  in 
order  to  renew  the  blanket  of  fine,  loose  soil. 

FERTILIZERS  AND  CROP  ROTATION. 

For  increasing  the  yield  of  truck  crops  or  high-priced  crops  grown 
by  intensive  systems,  the  application  of  complete  commercial  ferti¬ 
lizers  is  often  highly  profitable,  because  their  cost  is  small  in  compari¬ 
son  to  the  price  obtained  for  the  produce  or  in  proportion  to  the 
price  paid  for  labor  and  the  use  of  the  land.  Many  of  the  state  ex¬ 
periment  stations  have  issued  bulletins  on  commercial  fertilizers, 
giving  formulas  for  combining  the  elements  so  as  to  adapt  the  ferti¬ 
lizer  in  a  general  way  to  the  soils  of  their  respective  States.  These 
will  be  sent  free  to  those  who  apply  to  the  director  of  their  state 
experiment  station. 

Use  of  commercial  fertilizers. — The  question  of  the  chemical  ferti¬ 
lizers  best  suited  to  increasing  the  production  of  corn  on  the  many 
different  kinds  of  soils  that  exist  in  the  United  States  is  too  broad 
for  discussion  here.  A  soil  lacking  in  fertility  can,  of  course,  be  made 
to  produce  a  crop  of  corn  if  the  requisite  amount  of  nitrogen,  potas¬ 
sium,  and  phosphorus  be  added  and  the  soil  kept  in  a  good  physical 
condition;  but  the  growing  of  corn  on  very  poor  land  is  usually 
attended  with  very  little  or  no  profit.  It  is  usually  preferable  to  buy 
corn  rather  than  to  raise  it  on  impoverished  soil. 

An  application  of  commercial  fertilizer  may  cause  a  soil  to  pro¬ 
duce  one  good  crop  of  legumes  or  other  plants,  and  the  roots  and 
foliage  of  this  crop  will  usually  benefit  the  physical  condition  and 
fertility  of  the  soil  sufficiently  to  make  other  good  crops  possible 
without  additional  applications  of  fertilizer.  The  practice  to  be 
guarded  against  is  the  robbing  of  the  land.  As  much  vegetable 
growth  should  be  left  on  the  land  as  judicious  management  will 
permit.  Soils  are  not  enriched  by  rest  but  by  producing  crops, 
provided  the  crops  are  left  on  the  land. 

Important  elements  of  soil  fertility. — Of  the  ten  elements  necessary 
to  plant  growth,  nitrogen,  potassium,  and  phosphorus  are  the  ones 
whose  application  to  soils  produces  the  greatest  increase  in  pro¬ 
ductivity.  Soils  composed  almost  wholly  of  sand  are  often  deficient 
in  all  three  of  these  elements.  Soils  containing  much  vegetable 

414 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


13 


matter  are  not  deficient  in  nitrogen  and  usually  contain  sufficient 
phosphorus  Clay  soils  may  contain  sufficient  potassium  and  phos¬ 
phorus  and  be  deficient  in  nitrogen.  Such  soils  are  made  highly 
productive  by  growing  upon  them  leguminous  crops. 

Nitrogen  can  be  added  to  the  soil  by  applying  sodium  nitrate, 
dried  blood,  tankage,  etc.,  but  this  element  can  be  more  cheaply 
obtained  from  the  air  by  growing  and  plowing  under  legumes. 
Potassium  can  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  potassium  chloride  or 
potassium  sulphate.  Phosphorus  can  be  supplied  by  applications 
of  ground  rock  phosphate  or  ground  bone. 

If  the  soil  is  of  such  a  nature  that  the  application  of  one  or  a  few 
elements  at  a  small  cost  will  cause  it  to  produce  good  corn  crops,  these 
elements  should  be  supplied;  but  if  the  soil  is  little  more  than  a  foun¬ 
dation,  to  which  must  be  added  a  large  portion  of  the  necessary  plant 
food,  corn  growing  should  be  suspended  until  the  soil  is  permanently 
enriched  by  applying  large  quantities  of  barnyard  manure  or  by  lib¬ 
eral  and  continued  growing  and  plowing  under  of  leguminous  crops. 
There  are  many  thousand  acres  of  peaty  swamp  land  in  Illinois,® 
Indiana,  and  Wisconsin  which,  although  containing  all  the  elements 
necessary  for  plant  growth,  are  caused  to  produce  much  more  abun¬ 
dantly  by  application  of  potassium.  Such  land  produces  little  or  no 
corn  without  potassium,  but  by  such  an  application  will  produce  good 
crops. 

Green  manuring  with  leguminous  crops. — Nitrogen,  which  is  an 
essential  element  of  plant  growth  and  the  most  costly  ingredient  of 
chemical  fertilizers,  in  a  free  state  constitutes  four-fifths  of  the  atmos¬ 
phere.  By  the  aid  of  microscopic  organisms6  leguminous  plants,  such 
as  clovers,  vetches,  beans,  peas,  and  the  like,  extract  nitrogen  from  the 
atmosphere  and  store  it  in  the  soil  in  a  form  available  to  succeeding 
crops.  This  is  one  of  nature’s  ways  of  applying  fertilizer,  and  by 
working  in  harmony  with  nature  man  can  hasten  these  processes  and 
render  poor  soils  fertile  in  a  few  years’  time  and  at  but  slight  expense 
other  than  for  labor.  Soils  enriched  by  the  growing  and  plowing 
under  of  leguminous  plants  retain  their  fertility  well,  but  no  soil, 
unless  it  be  a  river  bottom  which  is  frequently  renewed  by  overflows, 
should  be  planted  to  corn  year  after  year.  The  fertility  should  be 
maintained  and  improved  by  crop  rotation  and  by  the  turning  under 
of  green  crops,  which  can  often  be  grown  the  same  season  with  the 
crop  grown  for  profit. 

The  plowing  under  of  leguminous  crops  is  here  given  much  emphasis 
because  it  is  the  cheapest  way  of  permanently  enriching  the  large  areas 
existing  in  almost  all  the  States  of  the  Union,  and  which  each  year 

a  Bulletin  93,  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  1904,  p.  275. 
bli Bacteria  and  the  Nitrogen  Problem,”  by  George  T.  Moore,  Yearbook  of  the 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1902,  p.  333. 

414 


14 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


yield  poor  corn  crops  because  of  lack  of  fertility.  There  are  some 
soils  already  so  filled  with  decaying  vegetation  that  they  are  not  bene¬ 
fited  by  this  treatment,  but  such  soils  are  limited  in  area  as  compared 
with  the  extent  of  heavy  tenacious  yellow,  red,  and  black  clay  soils 
that  respond  with  increased  corn  production  wherever  legumes  are 
grown  and  plowed  under.  Almost  everyone  who  has  farmed  such 
soils  has  observed  through  a  cornfield  a  distinct  line  of  variation  in 
vigor,  marking  the  limitation  of  last  year’s  clover  or  alfalfa  sod. 

Soils  that  have  become  so  completely  exhausted  that  they  will  not 
produce  a  leguminous  crop  should  be  inoculated  with  the  proper 
nitrogen-gathering  bacteria,  and  should  receive  manure  or  commercial 
fertilizers  sufficient  to  produce  a  crop  of  some  legume.  Cowpeas  and 
soy  beans  are  good  crops  for  very  poor  land. 

No  more  land  should  be  cultivated  than  can  be  rapidly  brought  to 
a  high  state  of  productiveness.  Once  in  this  condition,  it  produces 
abundantly  enough  to  yield  a  profit  and  maintain  its  fertility,  pro¬ 
vided  a  due  proportion  is  returned  to  the  soil. 


Fig.  5.— A  Pennsylvania  field  that  produced  130  bushels  of  corn  per  acre. 


A  yield  of  130  bushels  per  acre.— In  sections  where  wheat,  oats,  or 
other  crops  are  harvested  in  early  summer,  it  is  almost  always  desira¬ 
ble  to  follow  them  with  a  soil-improving  crop  that  can  be  turned  under 
in  the  fall  or  the  following  spring.  Clover  sod,  turned  under  in  the 
autumn  and  then  torn  to  pieces  and  well  mixed  in  the  soil  by  cultiva¬ 
tion  the  next  spring,  furnishes  one  of  the  best  seed  beds  in  which  to 
plant  corn.  This  is  the  method  employed  by  a  Pennsylvania  farmer, 
who  reports  that  his  yield  has  not  been  less  than  100  bushels  of  corn 
per  acre  during  the  past  twelve  years,  with  the  exception  of  two  sea¬ 
sons.  He  practices  systematic  seed  selection  and  also  frequent  shal¬ 
low  cultivation  in  a  manner  well  suited  to  conserve  the  soil  moisture, 
and  is  confident  that  with  average  rainfall  during  fall,  winter,  and  early 
spring  he  can  raise  a  fair  crop  without  any  rain  from  planting  time 
until  harvest.  A  field  of  this  corn,  as  seen  in  August,  is  shown 
in  figure  5,  when  it  appeared  that  the  yield  would  exceed  100  bushels 
per  acre.  A  later  report  gave  130  bushels  as  the  average  yield  from 
90  acres.  Some  implements  used  on  this  farm  are  shown  in  figure  6; 

414 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


15 


on  the  left  a  four-horse  or  five-horse  cultivator,  used  in  the  spring  for 
loosening  and  tearing  to  pieces  the  clover  sod  plowed  under  in  the 
autumn,  and  on  the  right  a  two-row  planter  manufactured  expressly 
to  make  furrows  and  plant  corn  according  to  this  farmer’s  idea  of  the 
best  method  for  his  farm. 

Winter  soil  cover. — Whatever  may  be  the  system  of  crop  rotation, 
all  fields  which  are  subject  to  blowing  or  washing  of  the  soil  should 
be  kept  covered  with  some  crop  during  the  winter.  This  is  usually 
advisable,  even  though  the  field  is  not  subject  to  blowing  or  washing? 
and  if  the  proper  crop  is  grown  during  fall  and  early  spring  it  will 
enrich  the  soil  when  plowed  under.  If  oats  are  to  follow  a  corn  crop, 
clovers,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  velvet  beans,,  wheat,  rye,  or  some  other 
crop  should  be  planted  in  the  cornfield  at  the  last  cultivation,  or  as 
soon  as  the  corn  is  cut.  Although  such  crops  may  not  have  time  to 
make  much  growth,  they  will  protect  the  soil  during  fall,  winter,  and 


Fig.  6.— Implements  used  in  producing  130  bushels  of  corn  per  acre. 

early  spring,  and  add  to  its  fertility  when  turned  under  or  uprooted 
by  cultivation.  The  growing  of  beans,  peas,  clovers,  etc.,  is  a  great 
help  to  the  soil  even  though  the  seed  be  gathered  or  the  vines  cut  for 
hay,  but  the  turning  under  of  the  entire  crop  enriches  the  soil  to  a 
greater  extent  and  on  poor  soils  causes  a  very  noticeable  increase  in 
yield  for  two  or  more  years. 

IMPROVEMENTS  IN  METHODS  OF  CULTIVATION. 

Practical  corn  growers  will  understand  the  impossibility  of  giving 
specific  directions  regarding  the  best  methods  of  planting  and  culti¬ 
vating  corn  that  would  be  applicable  to  any  considerable  portion  of 
the  United  States. 

GENERAL  DISCUSSION  OF  METHODS. 

Adaptation  of  methods  to  conditions. — Methods  that  produce  the 
best  results  in  some  States  have  failed  to  produce  good  results  in 
others.  Some  sections  having  fertile  soils  and  good  rainfall  require 

414 


16 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


for  best  yields  thick  planting,  while  other  sections  having  poor  soils 
or  scanty  rainfall  require  thin  planting.  In  some  sections  with  deep 
soils  and  subject  to  prolonged  dry  weather  the  best  results  are  ob¬ 
tained  by  planting  in  a  furrow;  while  in  sections  where  the  land  is 
low  and  wet,  or  where  the  rainfall  is  excessive,  the  best  results  follow 
when  the  corn  is  planted  on  a  ridge.  Often  adjacent  farms  possess 
soils  and  drainage  facilities  so  different  as  to  demand  entirely  different 
methods  of  cultivation.  Rather  than  attempt  to  give  direc  tions  con¬ 
cerning  methods  best  adapted  to  many  various  latitudes,  conditions 
of  climate  and  soil,  and  varieties  of  corn,  some  fundamental  principles 
of  good  corn  cultivation,  as  determined  by  both  practical  and  experi¬ 
mental  corn  growers,  will  be  given,  leaving  it  to  the  judgment  of  each 
individual  to  decide  as  to  which  of  the  principles  mentioned  can  best 
be  adopted  in  increasing  the  yield  per  acre  under  his  particular 
circumstances. 

Learning  from  experience  of  others. — The  most  valuable  informa¬ 
tion  regarding  the  growing  of  corn  in  any  particular  section  can  be 
obtained  from  unprejudiced  observant  corn  growers  of  many  years’ 
experience;  and  the  writer  wishes  to  thank  the  hundreds  who  have 
so  kindly  given  him  such  information.  The  fact  that  the  experiences 
of  growers  in  different  localities  and  the  reports  of  experiments  from 
the  various  state  experiment  stations  do  not  agree  should  not  lower 
the  estimation  of  the  value  of  either.  Such  disagreement  follows 
necessarily  from  the  different  soils,  altitudes,  latitudes,  and  seasons. 
Conflicting  published  statements  have  caused  some  to  cease  trying  to 
learn  better  methods  from  the  experiences  of  others,  but  a  study  of  the 
conditions  will  show  good  reasons  for  the  conflicting  results  reported. 

Too  much  conservatism. — The  methods  of  cultivation  in  general  use 
in  one  section  of  the  countrv  differ  greatly  from  those  in  another  sec- 
tion.  The  implements  and  methods  employed  in  Iowa  are  as  different 
from  those  of  Connecticut  as  these  in  turn  are  different  from  those  of 
Georgia;  and  while  these  differences  are  to  some  extent  due  to  the 
nature  of  the  farm  land  or  to  the  class  of  labor  employed,  they  are  to 
a  still  greater  extent  due  to  the  conservatism  of  the  farmers  them¬ 
selves.  That  certain  kinds  of  cultivators  or  plows  or  methods  of 
planting  have  been  in  use  in  Georgia  or  Iowa  for  many  years  does  not 
prove  that  implements  or  methods  found  successful  in  other  States 
might  not  be  used  there  to  advantage.  It  is  much  too  common  for 
the  majority  of  growers  in  a  locality  to  adhere  to  methods  accepted  as 
best  simply  because  they  have  been  followed  for  years.  They  often 
purchase  a  particular  kind  of  plow,  corn  planter,  or  cultivator  be¬ 
cause  it  is  the  one  in  general  use  or  the  only  kind  for  sale  by  the  local 
implement  dealer,  without  considering  whether  some  other  kind 
might  not  be  better  suited  to  their  farms.  Merchants  and  manu- 

414 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


17 


facturers  are  so  familiar  with  the  methods  or  machinery  of  their  com¬ 
petitors  that  any  time  or  labor  saving  system  or  device  adopted  by 
one  soon  comes  into  general  use.  A  similar  diligence  and  enterprise 
should  be  exercised  by  farmers.  If  every  corn  grower  could  visit  all 
the  corn-producing  States  of  the  Union,  the  general  result  would  be 
the  discarding  of  poor  and  the  adopting  of  improved  methods.  No 
section  excels  in  all  respects,  but  almost  every  section  excels  in  some 
respect. 

In  the  South  Atlantic  States  the  observant  corn  grower  will  notice 
the  use  of  terraces  for  preventing  the  washing  away  of  the  top  soil 
(figs.  7  and  8).  He  will  also  see  the  advantage  of  spacing  rows  and 
stalks  in  the  rows  at  distances  suited  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil;  and, 
where  poor  soil  necessitates  the  planting  of  the  rows  6  feet  apart,  he 
will  perceive  the  economy  of  growing  a  soil-enriching,  leguminous 
plant  between  the  corn  rows  (fig.  9).  On  the  broad  prairies  of  the 


Fig.  7. — Cotton  and  com  growing  on  a  well-terraced  farm  in  Alabama. 


Western  States  he  will  learn  methods  of  curtailing  expenses  by  the 
use  of  plows,  planters,  cultivators,  and  corn  harvesters  designed  so 
that  one  man  can  drive  many  horses  and  thereby  accomplish  a  max¬ 
imum  of  work.  With  such  implements  one  man  can,  without  help, 
plant  and  care  for  40  to  60  acres  of  corn  in  addition  to  his  other  crops. 
The  same  methods  and  implements  are  suitable  for  many  farms  where 
more  tedious  and  laborious  means  are  now  followed. 

FALL  PLOWING. 

Fall  plowing  can  not  be  recommended  for  all  soils  and  localities, 
but  should  be  more  generally  practiced  than  at  present.  If  a  cover 
crop  or  sod  is  turned  under  in  the  autumn,  decomposition  will  increase 
the  amount  of  plant  food  available  for  the  crop  next  summer.  This 
is  true  to  some  extent  even  though  sod  is  not  turned  under,  inas- 

414 


18 


CORN  CULTIVATION 


much  as  the  simple  loosening  of  the  soil  admits  atmospheric  oxygen 
and  increases  chemical  action  upon  vegetable  and  mineral  matter. 
Fall  and  winter  plowing  is  one  of  the  best  methods  of  combating 


Fig.  8.— Soil  washing  prevented  by  terraces. 


Fig.  9.— Wide  planting,  with  peanuts  between  the  com  rows. 


grubworms,  cutworms,  and  corn-root  worms,  which  are  often  de¬ 
structive  to  corn.  Because  the  surface  of  ground  plowed  in  the  fall 
is  drier  at  planting  time  in  the  spring  than  that  of  ground  not  so 

414 


COEN  CULTIVATION. 


19 


treated,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  there  is  less  moisture  in 
fall-plowed  ground.  The  fall  plowing  has  enabled  the  rainfall  better 
to  penetrate  the  subsoil,  thus  relieving  the  surface  of  its  excess  of 
moisture.  In  the  spring,  fall-plowed  fields  usually  contain  much  more 
moisture,  but  at  the  same  time  have  a  drier  surface  than  fields  which 
remain  unplowed  until  spring.  In  sections  where  there  is  much  rain 
during  the  winter  it  is  better  not  to  harrow  the  fall-plowed  land  in  the 
autumn.  This  is  especially  true  of  fine  clay  soils  that  run  together 
and  pack  readily.  In  comparative  tests  of  fall  and  spring  plowing, 
preceding  a  dry  summer,  the  fall-plowed  fields  have  generally  yielded 
better.  The  same  is  true  of  subsoiling.  Deep  spring  plowing  and 
spring  subsoiling  are  likely  to  result  in  diminished  crops,  especially  if 
done  after  the  spring  rains.  The  loosening  of  the  soil  to  great  depths 
admits  air  and  facilitates  the  loss  of  soil  moisture;  it  also  interrupts  the 
capillarity,  so  that  moisture  is  not  as  readily  drawn  from  greater  depths, 
and  during  a  dry  summer  there  is  not  enough  available  moisture  to 
support  a  good  crop. 

DEPTH  OF  PLOWING. 

From  the  above  it  is  plain  why  there  has  been  so  much  contradic¬ 
tory  evidence  regarding  the  best  depths  to  plow  for  certain  crops. 
For  a  deep,  rich  soil  deep  plowing  is  best,  providing  it  is  done  in  the 
fall  or  does  not  render  the  soil  too  loose  and  dry.  For  thin  clay 
soils  subsoiling  is  better  than  very  deep  plowing,  because  it  does  not 
turn  the  compact  clay  to  the  surface,  yet  at  the  same  time  loosens 
the  soil  to  a  good  depth.  The  plowing  should  not  be  at  the  same 
depth  from  year  to  year,  as  by  such  a  practice  the  soil  is  not  mixed 
well  and  a  hard  surface  is  left  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrows  where  the 
horses  walk  and  the  plows  drag.  A  little  subsoil  turned  to  the  sur¬ 
face  occasionally  allows  the  elements  to  act  upon  it,  liberating  plant 
food,  and  as  it  becomes  mingled  with  surface  soil  and  vegetable 
growth  the  soil  depth  will  be  increased.  To  accomplish  these  desired 
results  it  is  well  to  plow  a  little  deeper  each  year  for  several  successive 
seasons,  and  then  for  one  season  give  a  plowing  at  about  half  the 
depth  of  the  deepest  plowing.  The  plow  should  be  so  adjusted  that 
it  will  turn  all  the  soil  and  leave  the  surface  smooth.  In  every  in¬ 
stance  spring- plowed  land  should  be  pulverized  the  same  day  it  is 
plowed.  It  is  well  to  have  the  farm  mapped,  the  various  fields  num¬ 
bered,  and  records  kept  of  the  annual  treatment  and  production  of 
each  field.  + 

PLANTING. 

Time  of  planting. — Throughout  all  the  corn-growing  sections  of  the 
country  it  is  the  general  experience  that  corn  planted  early  most  often 
gives  the  best  yield.  Occasionally  later  plantings  yield  best,  but  they 

414 


20 


COHN  CULTIVATION. 


are  exceptions.  In  1902  the  writer  saw  fields  of  corn  in  Georgia, 
planted  in  February,  that  yielded  40  bushels  per  acre,  and  others 
adjoining,  planted  two  months  later,  that  did  not  produce  5  bushels 
per  acre.  In  the  Northern  States  there  is  little  choice  as  to  time  of 
planting.  Corn  must  be  planted  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  sufficiently 
warm,  in  order  that  it  may  mature  before  early  fall  frosts.  In  the 
Southern  States  the  growing  season  is  long  enough  to  allow  planting 
at  different  dates,  thus  lessening  the  likelihood  of  having  the  entire 
crop  cut  short  by  drought.  Growing  conditions  are  more  favorable 
in  the  spring,  and  corn  usually  produces  better  if  planted  at  that 
time.  Although  the  southern  summers  are  long  enough  to  afford 
plenty  of  warm  weather,  corn  planted  in  the  summer  will  ripen  in  less 
time  and  usually  produces  less  than  if  planted  in  the  spring.  Fields 
planted  early  frequently  escape  attacks  of  the  bud  worm,  while  later 
plantings  of  the  same  year  suffer  severely.  As  the  result  of  many 
years’  trials  at  different  state  experiment  stations  the  best  planting 
season  has  been  found  to  be,  respectively:  Middle  Georgia,  March  15 
to  20 ;  Illinois,  May  11  to  18;  middle  Indiana,  May  1  to  11;  Kansas, 
May  2;  South  Dakota,  May  10  to  20.  Corn  should,  of  course,  not  be 

planted  in  cold  or 
wet  ground  simply 
:  because  the  calen- 

dar  shows  that  the 
usual  planting  time 

Fig.  10.  Planting  system  for  low,  wet  land.  has  arrived  J  blit  by 

good  drainage,  fall  plowing,  etc.,  every  farmer  should  strive  to  have 
his  land  in  good  condition  to  plant  at  the  proper  time. 

Planting  low,  wet  land. — Underground  drainage  will  prove  most 
profitable  in  the  end,  but  as  this  is  rather  expensive  it  is  sometimes 
desirable  to  use  low,  flat  land  for  corn  before  it  is  possible  to  have  it 
tile-drained.  Sometimes  such  fields  are  plowed  in  small  strips  or 
“lands”  4  to  6  feet  wide,  and  a  row  of  corn  is  planted  on  the  ridge  or 
backfurrow  of  every  land.  This  places  the  plants  above  surface  water, 
and  for  this  reason  is  satisfactory  during  wet  weather,  but  the  high 
situation  of  the  stalks  is  a  disadvantage  during  dry  weather.  The 
method  of  planting  illustrated  in  figure  10  gives  more  general  satisfac¬ 
tion  for  such  fields.  The  ground  is  backfurrowed  in  lands  8  feet  wide, 
making  thereby  dead  furrows  every  8  feet.  On  each  side,  and  2  feet 
from  each  dead  furrow,  shallow  rows  are  marked  off,  and  in  them  the 
corn  is  planted.  By  this  method  the  plants  have  drainage  during  wet 
weather  and  are  better  situated  for  enduring  drought  than  when  stand- 

o  o 

ing  on  ridges. 

o  o 

Use  of  machines. — A  little  more  care  can  be  exercised  to  advantage 
as  regards  dropping  a  precise  number  of  kernels  and  covering  them 

414 


COEN  CULTIVATION. 


21 


with  mellow  soil  when  the  planting  is  done  by  hand,  but  the  labor 
saved  by  the  use  of  planters  is  so  great  that  for  profitable  corn  grow¬ 
ing  their  use  is  indispensable.  Moreover,  if  the  seed  bed  is  in  proper 
condition  any  good  planter  can  be  made  to  cover  corn  as  satis¬ 
factorily  as  it  can  be  done  with  a  hoe;  and,  if  seed  ears  having  kernels 
of  uniform  size  be  selected  and  the  small  and  misshaped  kernels  at  the 
extremities  of  the  ears  be  rejected,  good  modern  corn-planting  ma¬ 
chines  can  be  made  to  drop  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  practical  pur¬ 
poses.  However,  the  yield  depends  to  such  an  extent  upon  the  proper 
number  of  stalks  and  their  even  distribution  that  too  much  stress  can 
hardly  be  placed  upon  the  necessity  for  selecting  seed  ears  having 
kernels  of  uniform  size  and  plates  for  the  planter  that  will  drop  the 
right  number  at  the  required  distance.  Every  spring  the  planter 
should  be  thoroughly  tested  and  adjusted  until  it  will  drop  ac¬ 
curately  the  seed  to  be  used.  The  kernels  of  different  kinds  of  corn 
vary  so  much  in  size  and  shape  that  it  is  necessary  to  adjust  the 
planter  to  each  kind  of  corn  to  be  planted.  These  are  some  of  the 
many  essentials  that  can  be  attended  to  before  the  rush  of  planting 
time  arrives. 

Depth  of  planting. — The  proper  depth  to  plant  must  be  governed  by 
the  quality  and  moisture  of  the  soil.  If  it  is  a  stiff,  heavy  clay  con¬ 
taining  plenty  of  moisture  at  planting  time,  1  inch  is  sufficiently  deep ; 
but  if  it  is  a  light,  open,  dry  soil,  3  or  4  inches  is  a  satisfactory  depth. 
If  the  corn  is  planted  deeper  than  4  inches  much  of  the  food  supply 
stored  in  the  seed  will  be  consumed  before  the  young  plant  can  reach 
the  surface  and  expand  its  leaves.  Plants  can  not  be  made  to  send 
their  roots  deeply  into  the  soil  by  planting  the  seed  deeply.  They 
can  better  be  fortified  against  dry  weather  by  planting  the  seed  in  a 
furrow,  covering  it  slightly,  and  then  gradually  cultivating  the  furrow 
full  of  soil  as  the  plants  grow.  This  requires  some  care,  however,  as 
the  furrow  should  not  be  filled  to  any  great  depth  until  the  plants 
have  attained  a  height  of  2  feet  or  more  and  have  established  their 
root  systems  at  the  desired  depth.  This  method  of  planting  is  especially 
well  adapted  to.  deep  soils  where  dry  weather  is  likely  to  prevail 
during  the  middle  or  latter  part  of  the  growing  season.  The  lister,  the 
implement  with  which  a  large  part  of  the  corn  is  planted  in  the 
Prairie  States,  fulfills  the  requirements  of  this  method  of  planting. 

Planting  with  a  lister.— The  lister  (fig.  11)  is  used  for  planting  fields 
that  have  been  thoroughly  plowed  and  also  for  planting  directly  in  last 
year’s  cornfield  or  stubble  field  without  previous  preparation.  This 
latter  practice,  however,  is  not  recommended  for  shallow  or  stiff  clay 
soils. 

The  results  of  a  majority  of  the  comparative  tests  in  the  deep  soils 
of  the  States  just  west  of  the  Mississippi  Piver  have  been  in  favor  of 

414 


22 


COEN  CULTIVATION. 


listed  rather  than  surface-planted  corn,  and  the  increased  yield  of 
listed  plats  has  been  greatest  in  dry  seasons.  By  planting  in  a  deep 
furrow,  as  is  done  with  a  lister,  weeds  in  the  corn  rows  are  more  easily 
covered  by  cultivation,  and  as  the  furrow  becomes  filled  by  cultiva¬ 
tion  the  root  system  is  placed  at  a  greater  depth.  The  corn  is  thus 
better  enabled  to  endure  drought,  and  the  stalks  are  not  so  easily 

blown  down.  On 
soils  where  corn  can 
be  listed  without 
previous  prepara¬ 
tion  of  the  ground 
this  method  is  prof¬ 
itable  because  of 
the  labor  saved, 
but  it  can  be  suc¬ 
cessfully  employed  only  on  very  deep,  loose  soils.  When  the  drill 
is  attached  to  the  lister,  as  is  shown  in  the  illustration,  one  man 
with  three  strong  horses  can  do  in  one  day  all  the  work  connected 
with  the  planting  of  7  acres  of  corn.  The  drill  is  so  constructed 
that  it  can  be  detached  from  the  lister  and  used  separately.  By 
this  means  an  additional  man  and  horse  are  required  to  drill  the 
corn  in  the  furrows  made  by  the  lister.  If  the  soil  is  stiff  and  heavy 
it  should  be  well  plowed  and  brought  into  good  condition  for  planting 
before  the  corn  is 
listed.  A  lister  (fig. 

1 1 )  or  a  planter  with 
lister  at  t  achments 
(figs.  6  and  12), 
which  lists  two  rows 
at  once  and  makes 
a  mark  to  guide 
the  driver  on  his 
return,  can  then  be 
employed.  Disks 
or  double  mold- 
boards,  similar  to 
those  shown,  can  be 
attached  to  the  va¬ 
rious  makes  of  planters  and  checkrowers,  and  thereby  the  corn  can 
be  planted  in  the  bottom  of  furrows  below  the  general  surface  of 
the  field.  For  the  reasons  mentioned,  this  method  of  planting 
would  be  an  improvement  for  many  localities  where  extensive  areas  - 
of  corn  are  yearly  planted  by  means  of  checkrowers  which  leave  the 
surface  of  planted  fields  smooth. 

414 


Fig.  12.— A  two-row  planter  with  disk  attachments  for  furrow  planting. 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


23 


Planting  with  a  checkrower. — Perhaps  more  corn  is  now  planted  by 
means  of  a  checkrower  than  by  any  other  device.  This  implement 
is  adjustable,  so  that  the  spacing  of  the  rows  and  the  distance  between 
the  plants  or  hills  in  the  row  can  be  regulated  to  suit  the  requirements 
of  the  soil.  By  means  of  a  wire  chain  stretched  across  a  field  one 
man  and  team  can  plant  in  straight  rows  in  both  directions  across  the 
field  12  or  15  acres  per  day,  thus  admitting  of  cross  cultivation.  Corn 
planted  in  this  way  can  be  kept  free  from  weeds  and  well  cultivated 
without  costly  hoeing  or  the  cutting  of  weeds.  A  summary  of  numer¬ 
ous  tests  made  by  various  state  experiment  stations  shows  that  there 
is  practically  no  difference  in  yield  of  corn  planted  in  hills  of  several 
stalks  each  or  drilled  so  that  the  stalks  stand  separately  in  the  rows, 
provided  there  is  the  same  number  of  stalks  per  acre  in  each  case. 
The  former  system  facilitates  cultivation  and  the  latter  provides  for  a 
more  equal  distribution  of  roots  throughout  the  soil.  Checkrowers 
are  best  adapted  to  large  and  comparatively  level  fields  free  from  trees 
or  stumps.  Hillsides  and  sloping  ground  can  not  be  planted  in 
checks  without  increasing  the  liability  to  soil  washing. 

Checking  listed  corn. — Some  successful  growers  of  corn  have  found 
it  profitable  to  use  a  two-row  marker  set  the  same  width  as  their 
checkrower.  The  checkrower  follows  in  the  deep  furrows,  thus  accom¬ 
plishing  all  the  advantages  of  both  listing  and  checking. 

Distances  between  rows  and  hills. — The  distances  between  rows  and 
the  stalks  or  hills  in  the  rows  affect  to  a  great  extent  the  production 
per  acre.  A  proper  number  of  stalks  evenly  distributed,  so  that 
none  will  suffer  from  crowding  and  so  that  there  will  be  enough  to 
produce  the  greatest  number  of  well-formed  ears,  constitutes  the 
best  stand  for  the  production  of  ear  corn.  If  planted  thicker  than 
this  the  weight  of  stover  increases  and  the  production  of  good  ears 
decreases.  If  planted  thinner  the  weight  of  stover,  as  well  as  of 
ears,  decreases.  Small-growing  varieties  should  be  planted  thicker 
than  varieties  producing  tall  stalks.  The  scope  of  this  article  pre¬ 
cludes  the  giving  of  specific  directions  as  to  the  best  distances  for 
planting  the  various  strains  of  corn,  but  remembering  that  for  greatest 
production  rich  soil  requires  thicker  planting  than  poorer  soil,  each 
farmer  must  determine  the  best  distances  for  his  particular  corn  and 
soil.  In  1897,  1898,  and  1899  the  Georgia  Experiment  Station  a 
obtained  the  best  results  by  having  the  rows  4  feet  apart,  with  one 
stalk  every  3  feet  in  the  row.  In  1900  the  conclusion  was  reached 
that  for  upland  soils,  capable  of  producing  from  35  to  40  bushels  of 
corn  per  acre,  rows  4  feet  apart,  with  one  plant  every  2  feet,  would 
yield  a  larger  quantity  of  grain  than  any  greater  or  less  distance. 

a  Bulletin  51,  Georgia  Experiment  Station,  1900,  p.  287. 

414 


24 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


As  an  average  for  nine  years  the  Indiana  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  a  obtained  best  results  from  rows  3  feet  8  inches  apart,  with 
1  stalk  every  1 1  inches  in  the  row. 

The  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  b  after  five  years’ 
tests  directs  as  follows:  On  ordinary  corn-belt  land  of  northern  Illinois 
plant  corn  hills  36  inches  apart  with  3  kernels  per  hill.  In  central 
Illinois  on  land  of  a  productive  capacity  greater  than  50  bushels 
per  acre  plant  hills  39.6  inches  apart  with  3  kernels  per  hill  and  on 
land  of  a  lower  productive  capacity  plant  hills  36  inches  apart  with  2 
kernels  to  the  hill. 

On  many  farms  of  slight  fertility  in  the  leading  corn  States  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley  the  annual  yield  is  considerably  reduced  because 
the  corn  is  planted  as  thickly  as  would  be  advisable  on  fertile  prairie 
or  bottom  soils.  Here  the  thinner  planting  practiced  in  regions 
generally  less  fertile  could  be  adopted  with  advantage.  Corn  should 
not  be  planted  on  soil  so  poor  as  to  necessitate  the  placing  of  the 
rows  5  or  6  feet  apart. 

The  distance  for  planting  in  a  particular  soil  should  be  decided  upon 
and  the  planter  adjusted  to  plant  accurately  and  regularly.  Spots 
missed  by  the  planter,  as  well  as  those  depleted  by  crows,  insects,  etc., 
greatly  decrease  the  yield  per  acre.  The  custom  of  planting  many 
times  thicker  than  the  stand  of  stalks  desired  is  not  a  good  one.  It 
is  a  waste  of  seed  and  also  of  labor  to  thin  or  “chop  out.”  If  the 
seed  germinates  poorly  it  should  not  be  planted,  for  although  a  stand 
may  be  obtained  by  very  thick  planting  the  stalks  will  not  be  thrifty, 
and  a  reduced  yield  will  result  from  using  the  poor  seed.  If  the  seed 
shows  a  germination  of  97  per  cent  or  more  in  a  thorough  germination 
test,  and  it  is  then  properly  planted,  the  stand  will  be  almost  perfect, 
unless  very  adverse  weather  ensues,  in  which  case  all  the  plants  will 
be  so  injured  that  the  planting  of  the  entire  field  again  will  be  pref¬ 
erable  to  replanting  the  missing  hills  and  will  be  more  easily  accom¬ 
plished.  It  is  not  only  a  waste  of  land  to  have  missing  hills  in  a 
cornfield,  but  also  a  waste  of  labor  in  cultivating  them.  If  a  field 
has  been  drilled  in  but  one  direction  and  for  any  reason  a  poor  stand 
is  obtained,  it  can  be  replanted  with  a  checkrower  set  to  drop  one 
kernel  at  a  time  and  operated  without  the  tripping  chain.  The  check- 
rower  is  driven  at  right  angles  to  the  rows  of  the  first  planting  and  is 
operated  so  as  to  plant  just  as  it  crosses  each  row.  For  this  purpose 
two  men  will  be  required,  one  to  drive  and  one  to  trip  the  checkrower 
as  it  crosses  the  corn  rows. 

a  Bulletin  55,  Indiana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  1895,  p.  26. 

&  Bulletin  126,  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  1908,  p.  367. 

414 


COEN  CULTIVATION. 


25 


IMPORTANCE  OF  THOROUGH  EARLY  CULTIVATION. 

The  most  successful  corn  growers  realize  the  importance  of  thorough 
early  cultivation,  thus  preventing  any  check  in  the  growth  of  the 
plants  because  of  weeds  or  crusted  soil.  The  farmer  should  see  that, 
from  the  time  of  germination  to  the  maturing  of  the  corn,  the  plants 
are  not  subjected  to  any  unfavorable  conditions,  but  are  given  an 
opportunity  to  make  a  steady,  vigorous  growth.  If  their  development 
is  checked  from  any  cause  they  will  never  fully  recover,  no  matter 
how  favorable  the  later  treatment.  As  a  consequence  of  heavy  rain¬ 
fall  the  stalks  may  increase  rapidly  in  height,  and  at  the  same  time, 
for  lack  of  cultivation  or  of  soil  fertility,  or  for  other  reason,  they 
may  be  slender  or  of  poor  color.  Thrifty  corn  plants  are  thick, 
strong,  and  of  dark  green  color. 

Horse  weeders  and  harrows  should  be  used  when  needed  to  break  a 
surface  crust,  check  insect  depredations,  or  kill  young  weeds  that  start 


Fig  13. — Narrow  shovels  and  fenders  for  early  cultivation. 

before  the  corn  is  up  or  large  enough  to  be  worked  with  other  imple¬ 
ments.  During  the  first  cultivation,  or  while  the  plants  are  very 
small,  narrow  shovels  that  throw  the  soil  but  very  little  should  be 
used,  and  fenders  are  usually  found  desirable  to  prevent  the  covering 
of  the  plants  (fig.  13). 

DEPTH  AND  FREQUENCY  OF  CULTIVATION. 

Many  comparative  experiments  of  deep  and  shallow  cultivation  have 
been  made,  and  on  the  whole  the  results  are  in  favor  of  shallow  culti¬ 
vation.  There  are  but  few  occasions  when  deep  cultivation  is  prefer¬ 
able.  If  excessive  rains  have  packed  the  soil  and  kept  it  water  soaked 
deep  cultivation  will  help  to  dry  and  aerate  the  soil.  Breaking  the 
roots  of  the  plants  must  be  avoided  so  far  as  possible  (fig  14).  If  roots 
are  broken  the  plants  will  rapidly  produce  other  roots,  but  it  will  be 
at  the  expense  of  the  vitality  and  food  supply.  After  the  plants  have 

414 


26 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


reached  a  height  of  2  or  3  feet,  the  soil  even  in  the  middle  of  the  rows 
should  not  he  cultivated  deeper  than  4  inches,  and  usually  a  shallower 
cultivation  will  prove  better.  For  retaining  soil  moisture  a  loose  soil 
mulch  2  or  3  inches  in  thickness  should  be  maintained. 


Fig.  14.— Root  distribution  at  silking  time.  The  bottom  of  the  board  represents  the  soil  surface. 

The  best  answer  to  the  question  of  how  frequently  corn  should  be 
cultivated  is  that  it  should  be  cultivated  often  enough  to  keep  down 
weeds  and  to  maintain  constantly  a  loose  soil  mulch  till  the  corn  has 


i 


Fig.  15. — Injurious  results  from  cultivation  after  the  ground  had  become  too  dry. 


attained  its  growth.  To  this  end  a  greater  number  of  cultivations 
will  be  necessary  when,  rains  at  intervals  of  about  a  week  cause  the 
surface  soil  to  run  together  and  crust.  This  crust  must  be  broken 
and  the  soil  mulch  restored,  or  evaporation  will  soon  rob  the  soil  of 

414 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


27 


its  moisture.  It  is  a  mistake  to  think  that  the  longer  the  drought  the 
more  frequent  should  be  the  cultivations.  After  a  fine  mulch  of  about 
3  inches  in  depth  has  been  produced,  its  frequent  stirring  is  not  neces¬ 
sary,  except  in  so  far  as  it  is  required  to  keep  weeds  from  starting. 
The  essential  object 
of  cultivation  is  to 
restore  the  soil  mulch 
as  soon  after  a  rain 
as  the  condition  of 
the  ground  will  per¬ 
mit.  If  this  time  is 
allowed  to  pass  and 
the  ground  becomes 
hard  and  baked  dry, 

. ,  U  Fig.  1G. — Implement  for  maintaining  a  soil  mulch  in  tall  com. 

the  crop  will  sutler 

greatly,  for  the  cultivation  ol  hard,  dry  ground  breaks  it  up  into 
clods,  allowing  the  air  to  penetrate  to  greater  depth  and  causing 
more  injury  than  if  such  cultivation  had  not  been  given  at  all.  All 
observant  farmers  have  seen  crops  injured  in  this  manner  (fig.  15). 


Fig.  17.— A  one-horse  cultivator  well  adapted  to  the  shallow  cultivation  of  tall  corn. 


Many  crops  are  cut  short  by  stopping  the  cultivation,  because  the 
corn  is  too  tall  for  use  of  a  double  cultivator  without  breaking 
down  the  stalks.  If  the  condition  of  the  soil  demands  it,  shallow 
cultivation  should  continue,  even  though  the  corn  is  tasseling. 

414 


28 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


Figure  16  shows  a  convenient  implement  which  can  be  used  with  a 
short  singletree  for  maintaining  a  soil  mulch  after  the  corn  is  too  tall 
for  the  use  of  double  cultivators.  Figure  17  shows  another  which  is 
better  adapted  to  cutting  off  weeds.  The  blocks  nailed  on  the  handles 
protect  the  hands  from  the  corn  blades. 

Tests  made  by  the  Office  of  Corn  Investigations  prove  that  it  is 
sometimes  profitable  to  remove  weeds  even  by  the  costly  process  of 
hand  hoeing  and  even  at  as  late  a  date  as  the  silking  time  of  the  corn. 

KINDS  OF  CULTIVATORS. 


With  a  good  riding  or  walking  double  cultivator  one  man  can  culti¬ 
vate  as  many  acres  as  two  men  with  a  one-horse  cultivator,  and  with 
the  most  improved  types  he  can  accomplish  the  work  more  easily 


Fig.  18. — A  two-row  cultivator. 


and  fully  as  well.  Because  of  this  saving  of  labor,  double  cultivators 
should  be  used  wherever  practicable.  Two-row  cultivators  equipped 
with  four  gangs  of  shovels  and  drawn  by  three  horses  are  meeting 
with  favor  in  the  central  Prairie  States.  As  one  of  these  completes 
the  cultivation  of  two  rows  of  corn  each  time  it  crosses  the  field,  one 
man  can  cultivate  15  acres  per  day.  In  many  sections  it  is  often 
difficult  to  obtain  laborers  when  they  are  needed  and,  as  with  these 
two-row  cultivators  one  man  can  cultivate  as  many  acres  as  two  men 
with  double  cultivators,  their  use  is  likely  to  increase,  especially  in 
comparatively  level  sections  free  from  stumps  and  rocks  where  corn 
is  planted  by  means  of  two-row  planters.  Some  forms  of  these  two- 
row  cultivators  (fig.  18)  are  mounted  on  two  wheels,  like  two-horse 
double  cultivators,  while  others  made  for  plowing  listed  corn  are  car¬ 
ried  on  runners  or  low,  broad  wheels  designed  so  as  to  follow  the  rows 

414 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


29 


made  by  the  lister.  Three-row  cultivators  (fig.  19)  of  this  type  are 
used  to  some  extent  on  large  fields  free  from  obstructions.  Very 
stumpy  land  or  tall  corn  may  necessitate  the  use  of  one-horse  culti¬ 
vators. 


Fig.  19. — A  three-row  cultivator  for  listed  corn.  The  broad  wheels  follow  the  furrows,  thus  guiding  the 

disks  and  fenders. 


The  kind  of  shovels  with  which  it  is  best  to  equip  either  single  or 
double  cultivators  must  be  determined  by  the  character  of  the  soil, 

size  of  the  corn, 
and  the  size  and 
nature  of  growth  of 
the  weeds  to  be  de¬ 
stroyed.  Without 
exception,  any  form 
of  shovel  found  to 
do  good  work  on  a 

one-horse  cultivator 
.  .  . 
can  be  attached  to 

Fig.  20.— Sweeps  and  shovels  used  on  single  and  double  cultivators.  ^  double  01’  ‘l  two- 

row  cultivator.  For  light  sandy  land,  sweeps  (fig.  20)  are  in  great 
favor,  and  are  of  various  widths  from  0  to  30  inches.  The  sweeps 
scrape  along  through  the  soil  at  a  depth  of  2  to  3  inches,  cutting  off 
weeds,  and  allowing  the  surface  soil  to  pass  over  them  and  fall  level 

414 


30 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


and  flat  behind  the  cultivator.  The  same  results  are  accomplished 
with  a  double  cultivator  used  in  New  England,  where  it  is  known  as  a 


Fig.  21— A  horse  hoe  or  hoeing  machine. 


horse  hoe  or  hoeing  machine  (fig.  21).  This  implement  was  made 
originally  for  tobacco  cultivation,  the  long  horizontal  blades  which 

extend  toward  the 
row  from  the  ver¬ 
tical  stocks  serving 
well  to  reach  under 
the  tobacco  leaves 
and  cut  weeds  and 
loosen  the  soil  with¬ 
out  breaking  the 
leaves.  In  the  il¬ 
lustration  the  hori¬ 
zontal  blades  are 
under  the  soil  and 


Fig.  23.— Surface  cultivator  and  disk  cultivator. 


can  not  be  seen.  Shovels  which  accomplish  the  same  purpose  are 
used  on  double  cultivators,  and  in  the  Central  States  are  called  surface 

414 


Fig.  22.— Double  cultivator  equipped  for  surface  cultivation. 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


31 


cultivators  (fig.  22).  In  the  field  shown  in  figure  23  the  surface  culti¬ 
vator  was  doing  better  work  than  the  disk  cultivator,  which  left  nar¬ 
row  strips  of  solid  soil  that  were  not  covered  with  fine  loose  soil. 
All  forms  of  shovels 
should  be  so  adjust¬ 
ed  that  the  loosened 
soil  will  make  a  fine 
and  even  covering  for 
the  harder  soil  be¬ 
neath.  The  surface 
cultivator  shown  in 
figure  23  bears  two 
attachments  for 
smoothing  the  soil 
behind  the  shovels. 

It  is  a  very  easy 
matter  to  have  the 
local  blacksmith  so 
form  the  cultivator 
shovels  that  they  will  accomplish  good  results  in  the  kind  of  soil  in 
which  they  are  to  be  used.  Figure  24  shows  shovels  modified  at  the 
farm  blacksmith  shop  for  use  on  river-bottom  land,  where  bind¬ 
weed,  man-of-the-earth,  and  other  vines  and  weeds  are  hard  to 


Fig.  25.  A  good  modern  double  cultivator. 


control.  The  sharp  horizontal  blade  at  the  bottom  of  the  shovel 
strikes  the  weeds  so  scjuarely  that  there  is  little  chance  for  them  to  es¬ 
cape  by  slipping  by  either  side,  as  is  so  common  with  ordinary  shovels. 

414 


32 


CORN  CULTIVATION. 


Almost  all  styles  of  double  cultivators  are  made  either  with  handles, 
as  walking  cultivators,  or  with  a  seat,  as  riding  cultivators.  The 
latest  forms  of  riding  cultivators  are  easily  and  readily  manipulated 
and  do  good  work.  Figure  25  shows  a  modern  cultivator,  the  shovels 
of  which  are  shifted  in  unison  to  the  right  or  to  the  left  by  a  straight 
forward  pressure  with  one  or  the  other  foot.  Some  cultivators,  which 
require  lateral  pressure  with  the  feet  for  guiding  the  shovels,  are  tiring 
to  the  operator.  A  sunshade  adds  but  little  to  the  cost  of  the  cultivator 
and  makes  the  work  less  irksome.  Such  appliances  should  not  be 
regarded  as  devices  of  the  lazy.  To  do  work  in  a  laborious  or  fatigu¬ 
ing  manner  when  it  can  be  done  equally  as  well  and  as  quickly  in  a 
pleasant  way  is  folly.  It  lessens  the  laborer’s  capacity  for  work  by 
exhausting  his  energy,  so  that  he  can  do  less  than  he  would  be  capable 
of  doing  were  he  to  perform  it  in  an  easier  way.  No  worker  is  more 
entitled  to  the  advantages  of  mechanical  devices  that  will  ease  his 
labor  or  increase  his  comfort  than  he  who  produces  the  food  supply  of 
the  world. 


[A  list  giving  the  titles  of  all  Farmers’  Bulletins  available  for  distribution  will  be 


sent  free  upon  application  to  a  Member  of  Congress  or  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture.] 


414 


o 


